nature or nurture?
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The question of human development is well represented by the image of a Gordian Knot. The Gordian Knot is often associated with intractable problems, or things that are difficult to disentangle. Conversations about human development often debate the impact of nature versus nurture, and inspire discussions about how much of our development and behaviour is predetermined by biological factors, and how much is a result of one's interaction with their environment. The difficulty separating these factors is what conjures the image of the Gordian Knot, and symbolizes my view that human development is influenced by both nature and nurture.
Ecological Systems Theory
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A theory of human development that encompasses elements of nature and nurture is Bronfenbrenner's (1994) Ecological Systems Theory. This theory espouses that our development is profoundly impacted by the environmental systems that we are a part of, and also gives a nod to our biological make-up. Bronfenbrenner (1994) outlines five systems:
Each system can be briefly summarized as follows:
Microsystem
- Microsystem
- Mesosystem
- Exosystem
- Macrosystem
- Chronosystem
Each system can be briefly summarized as follows:
Microsystem
- Our own biological make-up, or nature, is considered part of this system
- Since our biological make-up is included here, this theory is sometimes called the Bio-Ecological Systems Theory
- Family, school, peers, and places of worship are also part of this system
- Environments that are a combination of two microsystems, and their influence on each other
- For example, a sibling relationship at home and a peer relationship at school - how each informs and influences the other
- The interaction between two environments that are indirectly linked
- For example, a mother begins a job after staying home with her child for 10 years and, as a result, the child's grades decrease because the mother has less time to help the child with school work
- the attitude and ideologies of a cultural or social group
- Example 1: A child reared in a wealthy family with strong Christian beliefs may view a child from a less wealthy Muslim family as inferior for that reason
- Example 2: A child from an inner city family faces different challenges than a child from a middle-class, suburban neighborhood and vice-versa
- Example 3: A child raised in Malawi will have a significantly differed worldview than a child raised in Canada
- this system encompasses the changes that occur over the chronological life span and how those changes influence the interaction between systems.
- For example: A person's spouse dies and they no longer have him/her in their life for support
Captured here are examples of some of the systems that impact the me, and the members of my family.
My children were raised in an average Canadian household, with two parents and a stay-at-home mom. My father, pictured on the far right, passed away in 2007. All three generations were exposed to Christian values and practices.
These "systems" factor into our development and behaviour.
My children were raised in an average Canadian household, with two parents and a stay-at-home mom. My father, pictured on the far right, passed away in 2007. All three generations were exposed to Christian values and practices.
These "systems" factor into our development and behaviour.
Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development
"We become ourselves through others."
- Landau & O'Hara, 2012
- Landau & O'Hara, 2012
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Seeing human development through the lens of Ecological Systems Theory allows for a holistic view that considers all levels of influence from the home environment, to larger political systems, throughout the lifespan. While holding these approaches to human development in our minds, we can understand more detail about an individual's development by referring to Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development (1968). In this model, Erikson posits that individuals move through eight stages in their lifetime, and at each stage, face challenges that can foster, or hinder, development.
The chart below provides an outline of the Stages of Psychosocial Development:
The chart below provides an outline of the Stages of Psychosocial Development:
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Ego-identity is a key concept in Erikson's (1968) approach, and is described as the conscious sense of self that develops through social interaction. Erikson's (1968) Stages of Psychosocial Development are compatible with Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1994) because it addresses the importance of social interaction as a determinate of human development and behaviour, and considers changes throughout the lifespan.
theories of development inform counselling approaches
A counsellor's view of human development influences their theoretical orientation and approach to counselling. The three primary orientations that I subscribe to are cognitive-behavioural, person-centered, and feminist/systems approaches. Each one of these orientations are compatible with the view of human development presented here. Also, a counsellor's beliefs about human development will influence their approach to multicultural counselling.
Cognitive-Behavioural
Cognitive approaches explore core beliefs and schemas that are developed in response to interactions with our environment (Beck & Weishaar, 2011).
Person-Centered Approach
A person-centered approach fits will with a biological/social constructivist view of human development because it acknowledges that every individual exists in a continually changing world of experience, of which they are the centre (Raskin, Rogers, & Witty, 2011). Furthermore, the way an individual behaves is consistent with their concept of self, or their ego identity, a central concept in Erikson's (1968) Stages of Psychosocial Development.
Feminist/Systems Theory
Working from a feminist/systems orientation ensures that all aspects of a client's experience, from the family system to the larger social systems, are examined for their impact on the client's life.
Multicultural Considerations
It is important to highlight that a holistic, social constructivist view of human development lends itself well to multicultural counselling. A consideration of multiple environments that impact an individual's development, and an appreciation of the cultural rules and norms contained in those environments, can help counsellors remain sensitive and aware of the client's worldview and cultural identity.
Cognitive-Behavioural
Cognitive approaches explore core beliefs and schemas that are developed in response to interactions with our environment (Beck & Weishaar, 2011).
Person-Centered Approach
A person-centered approach fits will with a biological/social constructivist view of human development because it acknowledges that every individual exists in a continually changing world of experience, of which they are the centre (Raskin, Rogers, & Witty, 2011). Furthermore, the way an individual behaves is consistent with their concept of self, or their ego identity, a central concept in Erikson's (1968) Stages of Psychosocial Development.
Feminist/Systems Theory
Working from a feminist/systems orientation ensures that all aspects of a client's experience, from the family system to the larger social systems, are examined for their impact on the client's life.
Multicultural Considerations
It is important to highlight that a holistic, social constructivist view of human development lends itself well to multicultural counselling. A consideration of multiple environments that impact an individual's development, and an appreciation of the cultural rules and norms contained in those environments, can help counsellors remain sensitive and aware of the client's worldview and cultural identity.
References:
Beck, A.T., & Weishaar, M.E. (2011). Cognitive therapy. In Corsini, R.J. & Wedding, D. (Eds.), Current Psychologies, 9th Ed. (pp. 276-309). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. International Encyclopedia of Education, Vol 3, 2nd Ed., Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
Erikson, E. (1968). Identity, youth and crisis. New York, NY: Norton.
Landau, C., & O'Hara, S. The Psychology Book. New York, NY: DK Publishing.
Raskin, N.J., Rogers, C.R., & Witty, C. (2011). Client-Centered Therapy. In Corsini, R.J. & Wedding, D. (Eds.), Current Psychologies, 9th Ed. (pp. 148-195). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Beck, A.T., & Weishaar, M.E. (2011). Cognitive therapy. In Corsini, R.J. & Wedding, D. (Eds.), Current Psychologies, 9th Ed. (pp. 276-309). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. International Encyclopedia of Education, Vol 3, 2nd Ed., Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
Erikson, E. (1968). Identity, youth and crisis. New York, NY: Norton.
Landau, C., & O'Hara, S. The Psychology Book. New York, NY: DK Publishing.
Raskin, N.J., Rogers, C.R., & Witty, C. (2011). Client-Centered Therapy. In Corsini, R.J. & Wedding, D. (Eds.), Current Psychologies, 9th Ed. (pp. 148-195). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.